CIMSEC: A Growing Concern: Chinese Illegal Fishing in Latin America

"A Growing Concern: Chinese Illegal Fishing in Latin America"
W. Alejandro Sanchez
The Southern Tide
Center for International Maritime Security
September 19, 2017
Originally published: http://cimsec.org/growing-concern-chinese-illegal-fishing-latin-america/34194

The Southern Tide

Written by Wilder Alejandro Sanchez, The Southern Tide addresses maritime security issues throughout Latin America and the Caribbean. It discusses the challenges regional navies face including limited defense budgets, inter-state tensions, and transnational crimes. It also examines how these challenges influence current and future defense strategies, platform acquisitions, and relations with global powers.

“The security environment in Latin America and the Caribbean is characterized by complex, diverse, and non-traditional challenges to U.S. interests.” Admiral Kurt W. Tidd, Commander, U.S. Southern Command, before the 114th Congress Senate Armed Services Committee, 10 March 2016.

By W. Alejandro Sanchez

In mid-August the Ecuadorian Coast Guard detained a Chinese vessel off the Galapagos Islands, an inspection revealed the ship was transporting approximately 300 tons of fish, some of which were endangered species. This is yet another high-profile incident involving Chinese ships fishing without authorization in Latin American waters and ongoing efforts by regional naval forces to stop this crime. (This commentary follows up a previous report by the author for CIMSEC entitled “Latin American Navies Combat Illegal Fishing.”)

Ongoing Incidents

The most recent incident occurred on 13 August when anEcuadorian Coast Guard vessel and a supporting helicopter detained the Chinese vessel Fu Yuang Yu Leng 999 within the Galapagos Islands Marine Reserve. The vessel was escorted to Puerto Baquerizo Moreno, where an inspection discovered over 300 tons of a variety of fishes, particularly hammerhead and silky sharks as well as other endangered species. The vessel was a factory ship, which was fed fishes that were caught by other vessels. The country’s Ministry of Defense has stated that the Chinese fleet operating around Ecuador may number as many as 300 vessels. The incident prompted non-violent protests in front of the Chinese embassy in Quito as well as in Santa Cruz Island. At the time of this writing Ecuadorian authorities have put the crew on trial and have also sent a letter of protest to the Chinese government.

Previous to this case, the most notable illegal fishing-related incident in the region (so far) occurred in Argentina last year. In March 2016, the Argentine Coast Guard located a Chinese fleet fishing in its territorial waters by Chubut, southeast of the country. Security vessels were deployed, and the Coast Guard shot at the vessel Lu Yan Yuan Yu to prevent it from fleeing to international waters. Rather than stopping, the Chinese ship tried to ram one of the vessels.

There have been other incidents in the past couple of years involving Chinese fishing fleets. A final example occurred in 2015, when the Chilean Navy stopped a number of Chinese vessels off the Bio Bio region in Chile’s exclusive economic zone. The concern was that they were fishing for shrimp. An 11 July 2015 Navy press release explains that said vessels were inspected and no illegal cargo was found.

In December 2016, the Peruvian media reported the presence of large fleets from Asian nations (China, Korea, Taiwan). Similar articles explaining how these fleets hurt Peru’s fishing industry were also published in May to continue to raise awareness among the population. It is important to stress that apart from the 2016 incident in Argentina, there have been no other reports regarding violent maneuvers by Chinese fishing vessels when in contact with Latin American security forces (at least none that the author could verify).

The Response

Leaving aside the governmental response to these incidents, regional naval security forces now must demonstrate that they are capable of monitoring and controlling their nation’s territorial waters. For example, after the Galapagos Islands incident, the Ecuadorian Navy carried out naval exercises aimed at combating transnational maritime crimes. The 209/1300 submarineHuancavilca participated in the maneuvers, along with three coast guard vessels and a helicopter. A civilian fishing vessel and crew were also utilized as the target for said maneuvers. Days after the exercises, the Ecuadorian media reported thatHuancavilca had departed for the Galapagos Islands to help with patrolling the area against illegal fishing activities.

It is also worth noting that Ecuador and other nations are obtaining new naval platforms, particularly offshore patrol vessels (OPV), to monitor their maritime territory. For example, IHS Jane’s has reported that on 31 July the Argentine government passed a decree “authorizing state credit to finance some of the major defense acquisition programs included in the 2017 budget.” The acquisitions program includes OPVs, Beechcraft T-6C+ Texan II aircraft, among others. It is unclear if the OPV acquisition was motivated by the 2016 incident, but it stands to reason that this incident provided even more evidence that the Argentine Navy requires new platforms for maritime control.

Discussion

Discussing unauthorized Chinese fishing is complicated as alarmism must be avoided. The incidents between Chinese fishing fleets and security forces in Latin American waters have been few – at least from what has been reported. And apart from the 2016 incident in Argentina, none other has been violent.

Nevertheless, there are a plethora of reports regarding Chinese fleets operating without authorization in Latin America and other parts of the world, particularly in Africa: just this past June, Senegal detained seven Chinese trawlers for illegally fishing in its waters. Moreover, it is correct to assume that these fleets will continue to attempt to operate in Latin American waters in the near future, particularly as domestic demand for maritime resources prompts them to be bolder when it comes to the areas that they travel to. It is also important to mention that not all the fish China captures are for internal consumption, as the Wilson Center’s report “Fishing for Answers” explains: “most of China’s high-value species and about half the overall catch are exported to the EU, the United States, and Japan, and the other half is brought back to China and sold domestically.” (While this article is focusing on illegal fishing by Chinese fleets, we must keep in mind how growing global demand for fish is affecting the fishing industry in general).

Thus one concern looking toward the future is whether there will be more violent confrontations between illegal fishing fleets and security forces given a growing demand for maritime resources. So far, the vessels have either attempted to flee or surrendered to authorities, but the Argentine incident raises the question: would some of these crews one day decide to fight back in order to avoid capture and protect their profit?

Finally, the possible ramifications of future incidents like this must be considered. China is a global economic force, and most nations, including developing nations such as those in Latin America, would not want to take Beijing head on. This is arguably the reason why the incidents mentioned in this article have not somehow evolved into some type of trade or diplomatic crisis. In fact, just this past March, the Argentine government signed a  memorandum of understanding with the Chinese company Ali Baba to sell products like wine, meat, and (somewhat ironically) fish. Similarly, in spite of the December 2016 reports about the Chinese fishing fleet in its territorial waters, Chinese-Peruvian trade remains strong as the latest data by the Peruvian government states that trade grew by 30 percent in the first half of 2017 compared to the same period last year.

How Ecuador reacts to this latest incident will be interesting as Quito-Beijing ties are not only strong due to commerce but also on other areas. For example, Ecuador has acquired “709 4×4 and 6×6 multipurpose trucks, 6×4 fuel and water trucks, and different types of buses in a deal reportedly worth USD81 million,”according to IHS Jane’s. On 4 September, Ecuador’s daily El Telegrafo reported that China’s Ministry of Agriculture has proposed the establishment of an “intergovernmental communication mechanism” between Quito and Beijing to “exchange information and jointly protect” maritime resources and crack down on illegal fishing activities. At the time of this writing there have been no reports about how the Ecuadorian government will respond to this proposal but, if previous incidents in other countries are a precedent, the Galapagos Islands incident will probably be minimized in order to protect Quito-Beijing partnerships in other areas.

Final Thoughts

Demographic growth and scarcer maritime resources are a catalyst for more frequent clashes at sea. In recent years there have been various reports about Chinese fishing fleets operating in international waters and also crossing into a country’s maritime territory to carry out unauthorized fishing activities. The most recent August incident off the Galapagos Islands is another example of this problem, one which has gained prominence in Latin America since the March 2016 incident in Argentina.

New platforms like OPVs will help regional navies to more efficiently patrol their maritime territory and intercept unauthorized fishing fleets in the near future; however this is just half of the equation. The second part is how Latin American governments will adapt their relations (particularly trade) with China since most violating fishing fleets appear to be Chinese. Combating illegal fishing is a complex issue, as it involves modern (and numerous) platforms for surveillance and interception, as well as a skilled judicial system to prosecute the culprits. Adding the future of a country’s relations with China will not make the problem any easier. 

 Alejandro Sanchez Nieto is a researcher who focuses on geopolitical, military and cyber security issues in the Western Hemisphere. Follow him on Twitter: @W_Alex_Sanchez.

The views presented in this essay are the sole responsibility of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of any institutions with which the author is associated.

COHA REPORT: PERU ON PROBATION WHEN IT COMES TO PROTECTING DOLPHINS AND SHARKS

Peru on Probation when it comes to protecting Dolphins and Sharks
W. Alejandro Sanchez
Council on Hemispheric Affairs - Report
November 13, 2013
Originally published: http://www.coha.org/coha-report-peru-on-probation-when-it-comes-to-protecting-dolphins-and-sharks/

The Peruvian government is, finally, taking a strong stance to protect its marine ecosystems, as it contemplates the implementation of a ban on shark fishing. Ideally, this ban will not only protect sharks that inhabit Peruvian waters but will do the same for dolphins, as these animals are killed both for human consumption and to serve as bait for sharks. Dolphin fishing is illegal in Peru, but recent revelations by two conservation NGOs have brought to light this ongoing brutal practice, which is contributing to the devastation of not just one, but two marine species that are vital for maintaining the balance of a marine ecosystem, not just in Peruvian waters but in the South Pacific as a whole. 

A Tragic Revelation

The relationship between dolphin and shark fishing has been brought to light due to the recent investigations by Mundo Azul, a Peruvian NGO founded in 1999 which focuses on conservation efforts, particularly marine and coastal protection. Mundo Azul carried out its investigations as part of a joint project with Blue Voice, an ocean conservation organization based in St. Augustine, Florida. The two NGOs have declared that a plethora of small fishing vessels along the Peruvian coast (known in Peru as barcos artesanales) regularly pursue dolphins.

Human consumption is not the only motive for killing dolphins, though this occurs as well, but rather the animals are killed (sometimes they are harpooned) and put out to float on the water so that their blood will attract sharks. The modus operandi for captured dolphins is called long-line fishing: the fishermen operate in small wooden craft from which they lay down a rope that can be over 22km long across the open waters. Every 100 meters, an additional rope is tied to the main rope, which has a hook with bait at the end. It is estimated that a fishing boat can kill between two and six dolphins on each trip, which can amount to  as many as 15 thousand dolphins killed every year. [1] The two aforementioned NGOs estimate that as many as 545 small ocean vessels hunt dolphins in Peruvian waters. According to Mundo Azul, the major Peruvian ports out of which these fishing boats operate are Paita, Pucusana, Ilo, and Mollendo, among several others along the vast Peruvian coast.[2]

The revelations were released to the Peruvian public as well as the national media with little surprise. For example, the Peruvian TV news show Cuarto Podersummarized the situation by saying, “in only two months, [Mundo Azul’s investigation] has shown that the Peruvian law that prohibits the hunting, commercialization and killing of dolphins is as dead as every killed dolphin […]”[3] For their part, Peruvian fishermen deny the accusations that they are responsible for killing dolphins to hunt sharks, but rather that they use anchovies.[4]

As for the sharks, a press statement issued by Blue Voice explains,

Blue sharks and Mako sharks were taken on board the Peruvian fishing vessel, whose name must remain confidential. The process involves unbelievable cruelty and can take can take as long as an hour. Mako sharks, which are dangerous on deck, are cut behind the head to sever the spine. The fishermen cut the entire rostrum [pointed snout at the anterior end] off the blue sharks. [5]  

The shortfin Mako sharks are extremely active, epipelagic (open water) fish which are found from Oregon to southern Chile. The species is found circumglobally. Likewise, the blue sharks also are a highly migratory, pelagic, oceanic species.

In other words, hunting dolphins in Peru is illegal, but shark fishing is legal. Shark meat is a highly expensive delicacy in Asia, giving Peruvian fishermen a strong financial incentive to carry out different tactics to produce it, even if it means illegally killing dolphins.

Human Consumption

Small scale fisheries are important for Peru’s fishing industry and are the backbone for thousands of family livelihoods in the area, including those of fishermen and merchants. But these small-scale fishing operations – also called artisanal fishing – are also damaging ecosystems since, in spite of some laws, it remains largely unregulated and repeatedly subject to overexploitation.

Shark meat is legal in many countries, and is sold on the Peruvian domestic market as well as internationally, though its legality does not make the killing of sharks for their fins any less barbaric. The fins are separated in port by an intermediate fish dealer for export.[6] But more often than not, fins are also illegally taken at sea.  The value of the fins is often times found to be far greater than the value of the meat, hence fishermen will seek after sharks, remove their fins, and throw the sharks back into the water.  Most sharks breathe by a process called ram ventilation- that is, they must keep swimming forward with the mouths partially open to force water over their gills.  Without fins, these sharks inevitably will die from drowning.

To be fair, it is not just Peru that is hunting sharks, for either domestic consumption or export. Due to the high demand in Asia (particularly in China) for shark fins as an essential ingredient to prepare the famous shark fin soup, several other Latin American countries are also involved in the shark trade, and they will go to great lengths to protect this important source of income. Most notably, in 2010, British celebrity chef Gordon Ramsay was in Costa Rica to film a TV documentary calledGordon’s Shark Bait for the British Channel 4.[7] Not surprisingly, the chef and his camera crew were not welcomed by Costa Rican fishermen, and at one point the British chef was held at gunpoint and petrol was poured on him by individuals who did not want to show to the world the volume of shark fins that are caught or the gruesome processes that are customarily used by Costa Rican fishermen to catch them.[8]

Nevertheless, there is some reason to be cautiously optimistic as the consumption of shark fins may be decreasing in Asia, particularly in China. To use economic language, by decreasing the demand for this commodity, the production of the supply (in this case, killing dolphins to hunt sharks) could significantly decrease in Peru. In fact, an October 21 article by Simon Denyer in the British daily The Independentreports that there has been a success in raising awareness among the Chinese population about the implications of consuming shark fin soup on the global marine environment.[9] The author explains, “Just a few years ago, most Chinese people were oblivious to what was happening […] But in 2006, WildAid enlisted Chinese professional basketball player Yao Ming, who played for the [NBA team] Houston Rockets, to front a public awareness campaign.” This initiative managed to gain support in the Chinese business community and even the Chinese parliament, the National People’s Congress. Today consumption in the nation is recorded to be down, but not completely eradicated. “In high-end seafood restaurants in Beijing, shark fin soup is still on the menu — for between $60 and $325 a bowl — but some hotels and restaurants no longer offer it,” Denyer explains.[10]

In other words, legislation to ban shark fishing may just push fishermen in Peru and other countries to become more covert when hunting sharks and selling their fins, but a decrease in consumer demand would ideally have even more positive effects.

Peru: Lack of Compliance with Existing Laws

In declarations to the Peruvian daily La Republica, Stefan Austermuhle, the director of Mundo Azul, stresses that while shark fishing is legal in Peru, there are considerations and limits to the type of shark that can be fished which are not being respected. These include captured sharks which have to be over 1.60 meters in length, and if they are less, they cannot amount to more than 10 percent of the total of all sharks that were captured.[11] Austermuhle explained that sharks shorter than 1.60 meters are considered juveniles, so they should not be captured, in order to preserve the species. Hence, fishermen should only capture adults who are sexually mature so they would, hopefully, already have had the opportunity to contribute to the existing population. If too many adults and juveniles are caught, there is not enough time to replace them with younger generations, which potentially would lead to the extinction of the population.

Dolphin fishing has been illegal in Peru since 1996, when the legislature passed Law No. 26585. This law prohibits the hunting of certain breeds of dolphins, such as the dark dolphin, bottlenose dolphin, and the tucuxi, a type of dolphin that inhabits the rivers of the Amazon Basin.[12] If properly applied, the penalties for the killing of dolphins are somewhat severe, ranging from the suspension of fishing permits as well as three to five years in jail.[13] Another Peruvian law that protects dolphins is theDecreto Supremo No. 002-96-PE, which was signed on July 14, 1996.[14] Article 3 of the law declares that it is illegal to consume dolphins. Meanwhile, Article 4 states that any dolphin that is still alive and is captured in artisanal or industrial fishing vessels must be freed.[15] While these laws have been around for almost two decades, their pathetically low success rate of preventing dolphin hunting is a major source of embarrassment. The fact that this illegal activity continues demonstrates that the existing laws in Peru to protect dolphins are inefficient.

The Response Gains Momentum

The Peruvian government has not denied the claims made by the Mundo Azul and Blue Voice investigations, but has tried to portray a willingness on its part to take decisive action. For example, on October 24 the Peruvian media reported that inspectors from the Ministry of Production seized 1.5 kilos of illegal dolphin meat in a restaurant in the province of Callao, where Peru’s major port is located.[16] Moreover, after Mundo Azul made its research findings known, the Peruvian Ministry of Production (which oversees the Vice Ministry of Fishing) commissioned the Instituto del Mar del Peru (Institute of the Peruvian Sea), to draft a study to find the exact locations where these fishermen are carrying out their illegal activities.[17]  It is oftentimes more effective to work collaboratively with local fishermen to establish small protected areas, which are collectively and effectively managed, in order to help the species have an area where they can repopulate. Nevertheless, such a measure could only be effective if it is in an area where sharks and/or dolphins can be found. Funds and additional studies are required to find the appropriate maritime areas as it is unproductive to carve out a random no-fishing zone and simply hope for the best.

Moreover, Deputy Minister for Fishing Paul Phumpiu recently stated that the Peruvian government has designed a so-called “action plan” to preserve sharks and other endangered species, a plan that will ideally become a reality in 2014.[18] The government official also stated that it is the duty of regional governments to help carry out their own investigations in order to map out the networks so that illegally fished dolphin and shark products do not make their way to local and international consumers.[19] Furthermore, Phumpiu announced a proposal to initiate a public awareness campaign that would inform the Peruvian citizenry of the inhumane nature of shark fishing, in order to discourage domestic consumption.[20] The Deputy Minister boldly stated that “we do not consider them [shark fishermen] artisanal fishermen but rather delinquents”[21]

There is some reason to hope that the Mundo Azul revelations will encourage the Peruvian government to take bolder steps in protecting its marine ecosystem; namely, Deputy Minister Phumpiu explained that the government is evaluating the institution of a prohibition on shark fishing. By making shark fishing illegal, the ideas is that Peruvian fishermen would be discouraged from hunting dolphins as well. Coastal security agencies and marine conservation organizations must work in collaboration with local fishing communities to see that such prohibitions are properly enforced.

As for the amount of personnel and technology available for Peruvian authorities to patrol its ports and wide coast to make sure that bans are properly implemented, Deputy Minister Phumpiu has declared that there are today more than 250 qualified inspectors to enforce the 1996 ban on killing dolphins. Nevertheless, this figure does not appear to be sufficient to properly monitor Peru’s numerous ports (which is why coalitions with local communities are so important in the enforcement of conservation laws).[22] Meanwhile Rear Admiral Edmundo Deville, director general of Peru’s Coast Guard, explained that his agency has six patrol boats for maritime surveillance to combat illicit activities, while another 24 vessels can patrol the coast and go as far as 50 miles into the open sea. He explained that there are plans for Peru’s fleet of patrol boats to expand to 44 in number by 2016.[23]

It seems that combating the illegal fishing of dolphins and sharks is gaining momentum in Peru. Besides the Peruvian government and the proposed IMARPE study, the respected Peruvian daily El Comercio published on October 19 a set of five suggestions to help combat this tragic development. These recommendations included improving the monitoring and tracking of artisanal vessels (many of them do not have the proper fishing licenses), ensuring that harpoons are not on board of artisanal vessels before they leave port, and more effective police operations to crack down on markets that sell dolphin meat, so that it can be seized and the merchants can be prosecuted.

Lose the Fish, Lose the Ocean

By indiscriminately slaughtering two precious species such as sharks and dolphins, Peruvian fishermen are putting the Pacific Ocean’s fragile marine ecosystem at risk. This should be reason enough to encourage Lima (and other governments) to strive to protect these animals. More specific factors to take into account regarding why the uncontrolled killing of sharks and dolphins should be stopped include,

1. Their long-lived, low fecundity, and late age of maturity. Unlike many other species of bony fish that produce thousands of eggs at a time once (or more than once) a year from a relatively early age of maturity, sharks do not start reproducing until they are much older than some other fish. Once they start reproducing, many of these species birth just one offspring every two years. They also can live much longer than many fish species – in some instances surviving for over seventy years. Their low fertility makes it very hard for such stock to survive amidst increasing fishing pressures. In other words, sharks are being fished faster than they can reproduce and are at risk of being driven into extinction.
2. The presence of apex predators, like sharks and dolphins, are often thought to be an indication of the health of an ecosystem.  It is theorized that healthy numbers of these predators means that an ecosystem is functioning properly.  By eliminating these species in alarmingly high numbers, it can have a massive impact on the rest of the environment.
3. Trophic cascades.  Eliminating highly sensitive species (like sharks and dolphins) affects the rest of the ecosystem, an effect called a trophic cascade. The removal of apex predators entails that the population rates of their prey species are not kept in check. These prey species can then reproduce without control and can throw an ecosystem out of balance. The well-documented case of killer whales and their impact on sea otters in Western Alaska is a good example of how an imbalance in the amount of one species can disrupt the balance of an ecosystem.[24] Another example is a 2007 report in the journalScience regarding great white sharks in the Atlantic Ocean, which explains the negative effects of a decrease in 11 species of sharks, which have plummeted over the years, while the prey species that these consume have soared (rays, skates, and small sharks).”[25] On the other hand, a 2000 article in the Journal of Marine Science carried out several simulations staged in various regions of the world where sharks are to be found. The goal of these experiments was to discuss whether the absence of sharks would dramatically affect the local ecosystem.[26] The comprehensive analysis concluded, “shark depletion across ecosystems are often difficult to foresee, but may be ecologically and economically significant, and may persist over long time periods.”[27] 

Conclusions

One can only hope that the recent bloody revelations brought to light by the laudable work of Mundo Azul and Blue Voice will help to raise awareness of the perilous plight of dolphins and sharks in Peru. So far, Peruvian government officials have attempted to portray a proactive stance on the dolphin question in order to slow illegal hunting practices. Placing a ban on shark fishing would be a venturesome idea, and hopefully it will not take years to have it implemented. It is doubtful that the sharks and dolphins that currently swim in the Peruvian sea (and elsewhere) can wait much longer.

Credit: This author would like to thank the marine biologist interviewed for this analysis, as well as Sierra Ramirez, former Research Associate at the Council on Hemispheric Affairs and current M.A. candidate at American University, for their constructive feedback on earlier versions of this report.

W. Alejandro Sanchez, Senior Research Fellow at the Council on Hemispheric Affairs

References

[1] “Peru: 15 mil delfines mueren al ano en manos de pescadores artesanales.” La Republica. Sociedad. October 17, 2013.

Available: http://www.larepublica.pe/17-10-2013/15-mil-delfines-mueren-al-ano-en-peru-en-manos-de-pescadores-artesanales

[2] “Peru: 15 mil delfines mueren al ano en manos de pescadores artesanales.” La Republica. Sociedad. October 17, 2013.

Available: http://www.larepublica.pe/17-10-2013/15-mil-delfines-mueren-al-ano-en-peru-en-manos-de-pescadores-artesanales

[3] “Crimen en el mar: matanza impune de delfines en el Peru.” America TV. Cuarto Poder. October 20, 2013.

Available:  http://cuartopoder.americatv.com.pe/reportajes/crimen-mar-matanza-impune-delfines-peru-noticia-1113

[4] “La fiscalia de Ilo investiga la matanza de delfines.” ElComercio.com.pe. October 24, 2013.
Available: http://elcomercio.pe/actualidad/1649286/noticia-fiscalia-ilo-investiga-matanza-delfines

[5] “Holocaust for Dolphins and Sharks in Peru.” Bluevoice.org. Press Release.

Available:  http://www.bluevoice.org/news_perudolphins131016.php

[6] “Holocaust for Dolphins and Sharks in Peru.” Bluevoice.org. Press Release.  Available:  http://www.bluevoice.org/news_perudolphins131016.php

[7] Mackenzie Wilson. “Gordon Ramsay ‘Held at Gunpoint’ in Costa Rica.” BBCAmerica.com. January 3, 2011.

Available:  http://www.bbcamerica.com/anglophenia/2011/01/gordon-ramsay-held-at-gunpoint-in-costa-rica/

[8]  Steven Winford. “Gordon Ramsay threatened at gunpoint during illegal fishing investigation.” The Telegraph (UK). January 3, 2011.

Available: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/8237505/Gordon-Ramsay-threatened-at-gunpoint-during-illegal-fishing-investigation.html

[9] Simon Denyer. “In China Shark Fin Soup is Losing its Fashion.” The Independent (UK). October 21, 2013.

Available:  http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/in-china-shark-fin-soup-is-losing-its-fashion-8894495.html

[10]Simon Denyer. “In China Shark Fin Soup is Losing its Fashion.” The Independent (UK). October 21, 2013.

Available:  http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/in-china-shark-fin-soup-is-losing-its-fashion-8894495.html

[11] “Peru: 15 mil delfines mueren al ano en manos de pescadores artesanales.” La Republica. Sociedad. October 17, 2013.

Available: http://www.larepublica.pe/17-10-2013/15-mil-delfines-mueren-al-ano-en-peru-en-manos-de-pescadores-artesanales

[[1]2] “Proteccion Legal de Delfines en el Peru.” Mundo Azul.

Available: http://peru.mundoazul.org/ballenas-y-delfines/matanza-ilegal-de-delfines-en-el-peru/proteccion-legal-de-delfines-en-el-peru/

[[1]3] “Proteccion Legal de Delfines en el Peru.” Mundo Azul.

Available: http://peru.mundoazul.org/ballenas-y-delfines/matanza-ilegal-de-delfines-en-el-peru/proteccion-legal-de-delfines-en-el-peru/

[14] Reglamento Para la Proteccion y Conservacion de los Cetaceos Menores. Decreto Supremo No. 002-96-PE. Government of Peru. Available:http://www.mundoazul.org/descargas/pnp/reglamento_cetaceos_ds002-96-pe1.pdf

[15] Reglamento Para la Proteccion y Conservacion de los Cetaceos Menores. Decreto Supremo No. 002-96-PE. Government of Peru. Available:http://www.mundoazul.org/descargas/pnp/reglamento_cetaceos_ds002-96-pe1.pdf

[16] “Carne de delfin fue decomisada en restaurante del Callao.” ElComercio.com.pe. October 24, 2013.
Available:  http://elcomercio.pe/actualidad/1649394/noticia-carne-delfin-fue-decomisada-restaurante-callao

[17]“Crimen en el mar: matanza impune de delfines en el Peru.” America TV. Cuarto Poder. October 20, 2013.

Available:  http://cuartopoder.americatv.com.pe/reportajes/crimen-mar-matanza-impune-delfines-peru-noticia-1113

[18]“Gobierno condena la caza o captura de delfines” Peru21. Actualidad. October 18, 2013.

Available:  http://peru21.pe/actualidad/peru-condena-caza-captura-delfines-2153965

[19]“Gobierno condena la caza o captura de delfines” Peru21. Actualidad. October 18, 2013.

Available:  http://peru21.pe/actualidad/peru-condena-caza-captura-delfines-2153965

[20]“Gobierno condena la caza o captura de delfines” Peru21. Actualidad. October 18, 2013.

Available:  http://peru21.pe/actualidad/peru-condena-caza-captura-delfines-2153965

[21] “Produce: Peru condena la caza illegal de delfines y tiburones.” Rpp.com.pe. Economia. October 18, 2013.

Available:  http://www.rpp.com.pe/2013-10-18-produce-peru-condena-la-caza-ilegal-de-delfines-y-tiburones-noticia_640677.html

[22] “Piden a Fiscalias Investigar caza de Delfines y Tiburones.” Rpp.com.pe. Politica. October 23, 2013.

Available:  http://www.rpp.com.pe/2013-10-23-piden-a-fiscalias-investigar-caza-de-delfines-y-tiburones-noticia_641902.html

[23]“Piden a Fiscalias Investigar caza de Delfines y Tiburones.” Rpp.com.pe. Politica. October 23, 2013.

Available:  http://www.rpp.com.pe/2013-10-23-piden-a-fiscalias-investigar-caza-de-delfines-y-tiburones-noticia_641902.html

[24] J.A. Estes, M.T. Tinker, T. M. Williams and D.F. Doak. “Killer Whale Predation on Sea Otters Linking Oceanic and Nearshore Ecoystems.”  Science. Reports. Vol. 282, October 16. 1998.P. 473 -476.

[25]Ransom A. Myers, Julia K. Baum, Travis D. Sherp, Sean P. Powers, Charles H. Peterson. “Cascading Effects of the Loss of the Apex Predatory Sharks from a Coastal Ocean.” Science. Vol. 315. March 30. 2007. P. 1846 – 1850.

[26] J.D. Stevens, R. Bonfil, N.K.Dulvy, and P.A. Walker. “The Effects of Fishing on Sharks. Rays, and Chimaeras (Chondrichtyans), and the Implications for Marine Ecosystems.” Journal of Marine Science. 57. P. 476-494.

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