Presentation: "Las Operaciones de las Armadas de América Latina y el Caribe contra la Pesca Ilegal: El Futuro de las Flotas"

 

 

"Las Operaciones de las Armadas de América Latina y el Caribe contra la Pesca Ilegal: El Futuro de las Flotas"

Wilder Alejandro Sanchez

CONFERENCIA DE PROTECCIÓN AL MEDIO AMBIENTE

Junta Interamericana de Defensa
Washington, DC

17 de Septiembre del 2025 

Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q0-HF5SXtps 

Book Chapters in: “Maritime Strategy and Security Challenges in South America”

 

Maritime Strategy and Security Challenges in South America

 Henrik Shilling and Anne Runhaar (Eds)

ISPK Seapower Series

Vol. 6, First Edition, 2025

Nomos, Baden-Baden  

Chapter: "Maritime Strategy and Security Challenges in South America" p. 23-42

Chapter: "IUU Fishing and South American Navies" p. 159-172

https://www.nomos-elibrary.de/en/document/view/detail/uuid/a0885c17-cad1-3152-9408-7bd601824bd2 

 

 

CSIS: "How Latin American Navies Combat Illegal, Unreported, or Unregulated Fishing"

 

"How Latin American Navies Combat Illegal, Unreported, or Unregulated Fishing"

Wilder Alejandro Sanchez

Americas Program

Center for Strategic and International Studies

22 May, 2024

Originally published: https://www.csis.org/analysis/how-latin-american-navies-combat-illegal-unreported-or-unregulated-fishing

At the end of March, Argentina’s minister of defense flew aboard a C-130 Hercules aircraft over Argentina’s exclusive economic zone (EEZ) to monitor firsthand international distant-water fishing vessels potentially involved in illegal, unreported, or unregulated (IUU) fishing in the country’s waters. Across Latin America, navies and coast guards are the first line of defense to combat this crime.

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Presentation in "6th Annual Security Challenges in Latin America Forum"

 

Panel: "Threats to Marine Diversity: Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated Fishing"

6^th Annual Security Challenges in Latin America Forum

4 April 2024

Johns Hopkins Bloomberg Center, Washington, DC

https://wjpcenter.org/wjpc-news/6th-annual-security-challenges-in-latin-america-forum/

 

Report: "The Peruvian Armed Forces vs Environmental Crimes: An Analysis"

 

"The Peruvian Armed Forces vs Environmental Crimes: An Analysis"

Wilder Alejandro Sanchez

Regional Insights 

2022, No.5 (November)

William J. Perry Center for Hemispheric Defense Studies

National Defense University

Originally published: http://dev.williamjperrycenter.org/sites/default/files/publication_associated_files/perumilitaryenvironmentalcrimes.pdf

CIMSEC: Argentina Deploys New Patrol Vessels to Combat IUU Fishing

 

"Argentina Deploys New Patrol Vessels to Combat IUU Fishing"

Wilder Alejandro Sanchez

The Southern Tide

Center for International Maritime Security

2 February, 2022

Originally published: https://cimsec.org/argentina-deploys-new-patrol-vessels-to-combat-iuu-fishing/

The Argentine Navy has deployed its two newest offshore patrol vessels (OPVs), ARA Bouchard (P-51) and ARA Piedrabuena (P-52), to monitor an international fishing fleet traveling close to the country’s exclusive economic zone (EEZ) en route to the South Atlantic. While there have been no confirmed reports of these vessels engaging in illegal, unregulated, or unreported (IUU) fishing, recent history suggests that this is occurring or will occur soon.

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Perry Center /NDU: The Creation of a TIAR 21 to Combat Illegal Fishing in Latin America

 

 "La Creación de un TIAR 21 para Combatir la Pesca Ilegal en Latinoamérica"

" The Creation of a TIAR 21 to Combat Illegal Fishing in Latin America"

Wilder Alejandro Sanchez

Regional Insights

William J. Perry  -Center for Hemispheric Defense Studies 

National Defense University/ Washington DC

July 2021

Originally published: https://www.williamjperrycenter.org/content/creation-tiar-21-combat-illegal-fishing-latin-america

 In Spanish

 

 

 

 

Geopolitical Monitor: TIAR 2.0: Breathing New Life into a Cold War-era inter-American Defense Treaty

 

 

"TIAR 2.0: Breathing New Life into a Cold War-era inter-American Defense Treaty"

Wilder Alejandro Sanchez

Situation Reports

Geopolitical Monitor

9 April, 2021

Originally published: https://www.geopoliticalmonitor.com/tiar-2-0-breathing-new-life-into-a-cold-war-era-inter-american-defense-treaty/

International diplomacy is composed of an endless list of treaties, agreements, memoranda of understanding, among other types of documents between states. As events unfold and national interests and objectives shift, many of these treaties become obsolete, forgotten or replaced by new treaties. One document that is in the edge of becoming obsolete is the Inter-American Reciprocal Assistance Treaty (Tratado Inter-Americano de Asistencia Recíproca: TIAR), commonly known as the Rio Treaty.

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CIMSEC: Friends from Afar: U.S. and South Korea Coast Guards Help South America Combat IUU Fishing

 

 

"Friends from Afar: U.S. and South Korea Coast Guards Help South America Combat IUU Fishing"

Wilder Alejandro Sanchez

The Southern Tide

Center for International Maritime Security

February 24, 2021

Originally published: https://cimsec.org/friends-from-afar-u-s-and-south-korea-coast-guards-help-south-america-combat-iuu-fishing/

 

The Southern Tide

Written by Wilder Alejandro Sanchez, The Southern Tide addresses maritime security issues throughout Latin America and the Caribbean. It discusses the challenges regional navies face including limited defense budgets, inter-state tensions, and transnational crimes. It also examines how these challenges influence current and future defense strategies, platform acquisitions, and relations with global powers.

“We focus on partnerships…Our partners want to work with us. They want the advantage of the United States education, training, exercises and military equipment. It’s the best in the world. And so it’s up to us to deliver that in a way that’s relevant and also provides a return on investment for American taxpayer. So that is our focus.” –Navy Adm. Craig S. Faller, commander of U.S. Southern Command, before the Senate Armed Services Committee July 9, 2019.

By Wilder Alejandro Sanchez

Introduction

A deployment by the U.S. Coast Guard cutter Stone (WMSL-758) to the South Atlantic, and two coast guard patrol vessels donated by the Korea Coast Guard (KCG) to the Ecuadorian Navy, are some of the latest initiatives by South America’s partners to help regional navies combat illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing. As large, extra-hemispheric fishing fleets continue to actively operate close to South American waters, often crossing into the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) of regional states, navies require additional ships and the physical presence of partner navies to combat these crimes. In the vast waters of the South Pacific and South Atlantic, every ship counts.

 

 

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CIMSEC: TIAR 21: Maritime security, the TIAR, and IUU fishing in the Western Hemisphere

 

 "TIAR 21: Maritime security, the TIAR, and IUU fishing in the Western Hemisphere"

 Wilder Alejandro Sanchez

The Southern Tide

Center for International Maritime Security

October 16, 2020

Originally published: http://cimsec.org/tiar-21-maritime-security-the-tiar-and-iuu-fishing-in-the-western-hemisphere/46145

The Southern Tide

Written by Wilder Alejandro Sanchez, The Southern Tide addresses maritime security issues throughout Latin America and the Caribbean. It discusses the challenges regional navies face including limited defense budgets, inter-state tensions, and transnational crimes. It also examines how these challenges influence current and future defense strategies, platform acquisitions, and relations with global powers.

“We focus on partnerships…Our partners want to work with us. They want the advantage of the United States education, training, exercises and military equipment. It’s the best in the world. And so it’s up to us to deliver that in a way that’s relevant and also provides a return on investment for American taxpayer. So that is our focus.” –Navy Adm. Craig S. Faller, commander of U.S. Southern Command, before the Senate Armed Services Committee July 9, 2019.

By Wilder Alejandro Sanchez

Introduction

An international fishing fleet is currently sailing through international waters in the South Pacific, passing close to Ecuador and Peru, and it is currently sailing close to Chile en route to Antarctica The navies of these countries are on alert and governments are sharing information to monitor the fleet.

In light of this development, what more can regional governments do to jointly combat illegal, unreported, or unregulated (IUU) fishing? One tool in the region’s arsenal could be amended in order to combat this particular type of threat: the Inter-American Reciprocal Assistance Treaty (Tratado Inter-Americano de Asistencia Recíproca: TIAR), more commonly known as the Rio Treaty as or the Rio Pact.

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CIMSEC: The Ecuadorian Navy’s Constant Struggle Against IUU Fishing

 

 

"The Ecuadorian Navy’s Constant Struggle Against IUU Fishing"

Wilder Alejandro Sanchez

The Southern Tide

Center for International Maritime Security

Originally published: http://cimsec.org/the-ecuadorian-navys-constant-struggle-against-iuu-fishing/45266

Written by Wilder Alejandro Sanchez, The Southern Tide addresses maritime security issues throughout Latin America and the Caribbean. It discusses the challenges regional navies face including limited defense budgets, inter-state tensions, and transnational crimes. It also examines how these challenges influence current and future defense strategies, platform acquisitions, and relations with global powers.

“We focus on partnerships…Our partners want to work with us. They want the advantage of the United States education, training, exercises and military equipment. It’s the best in the world. And so it’s up to us to deliver that in a way that’s relevant and also provides a return on investment for American taxpayer. So that is our focus.” –Navy Adm. Craig S. Faller, commander of U.S. Southern Command, before the Senate Armed Services Committee July 9, 2019.

By Wilder Alejandro Sanchez

An international fishing fleet composed of some 340 vessels is currently sailing through international waters close to Ecuador’s exclusive economic zone (EEZ). Illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing is a constant challenge for Latin American navies, but the recurring presence of large, predatory, extra-regional fishing fleets exacerbates an already problematic situation.

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CIMSEC: A Growing Concern: Chinese Illegal Fishing in Latin America

"A Growing Concern: Chinese Illegal Fishing in Latin America"
W. Alejandro Sanchez
The Southern Tide
Center for International Maritime Security
September 19, 2017
Originally published: http://cimsec.org/growing-concern-chinese-illegal-fishing-latin-america/34194

The Southern Tide

Written by Wilder Alejandro Sanchez, The Southern Tide addresses maritime security issues throughout Latin America and the Caribbean. It discusses the challenges regional navies face including limited defense budgets, inter-state tensions, and transnational crimes. It also examines how these challenges influence current and future defense strategies, platform acquisitions, and relations with global powers.

“The security environment in Latin America and the Caribbean is characterized by complex, diverse, and non-traditional challenges to U.S. interests.” Admiral Kurt W. Tidd, Commander, U.S. Southern Command, before the 114th Congress Senate Armed Services Committee, 10 March 2016.

By W. Alejandro Sanchez

In mid-August the Ecuadorian Coast Guard detained a Chinese vessel off the Galapagos Islands, an inspection revealed the ship was transporting approximately 300 tons of fish, some of which were endangered species. This is yet another high-profile incident involving Chinese ships fishing without authorization in Latin American waters and ongoing efforts by regional naval forces to stop this crime. (This commentary follows up a previous report by the author for CIMSEC entitled “Latin American Navies Combat Illegal Fishing.”)

Ongoing Incidents

The most recent incident occurred on 13 August when anEcuadorian Coast Guard vessel and a supporting helicopter detained the Chinese vessel Fu Yuang Yu Leng 999 within the Galapagos Islands Marine Reserve. The vessel was escorted to Puerto Baquerizo Moreno, where an inspection discovered over 300 tons of a variety of fishes, particularly hammerhead and silky sharks as well as other endangered species. The vessel was a factory ship, which was fed fishes that were caught by other vessels. The country’s Ministry of Defense has stated that the Chinese fleet operating around Ecuador may number as many as 300 vessels. The incident prompted non-violent protests in front of the Chinese embassy in Quito as well as in Santa Cruz Island. At the time of this writing Ecuadorian authorities have put the crew on trial and have also sent a letter of protest to the Chinese government.

Previous to this case, the most notable illegal fishing-related incident in the region (so far) occurred in Argentina last year. In March 2016, the Argentine Coast Guard located a Chinese fleet fishing in its territorial waters by Chubut, southeast of the country. Security vessels were deployed, and the Coast Guard shot at the vessel Lu Yan Yuan Yu to prevent it from fleeing to international waters. Rather than stopping, the Chinese ship tried to ram one of the vessels.

There have been other incidents in the past couple of years involving Chinese fishing fleets. A final example occurred in 2015, when the Chilean Navy stopped a number of Chinese vessels off the Bio Bio region in Chile’s exclusive economic zone. The concern was that they were fishing for shrimp. An 11 July 2015 Navy press release explains that said vessels were inspected and no illegal cargo was found.

In December 2016, the Peruvian media reported the presence of large fleets from Asian nations (China, Korea, Taiwan). Similar articles explaining how these fleets hurt Peru’s fishing industry were also published in May to continue to raise awareness among the population. It is important to stress that apart from the 2016 incident in Argentina, there have been no other reports regarding violent maneuvers by Chinese fishing vessels when in contact with Latin American security forces (at least none that the author could verify).

The Response

Leaving aside the governmental response to these incidents, regional naval security forces now must demonstrate that they are capable of monitoring and controlling their nation’s territorial waters. For example, after the Galapagos Islands incident, the Ecuadorian Navy carried out naval exercises aimed at combating transnational maritime crimes. The 209/1300 submarineHuancavilca participated in the maneuvers, along with three coast guard vessels and a helicopter. A civilian fishing vessel and crew were also utilized as the target for said maneuvers. Days after the exercises, the Ecuadorian media reported thatHuancavilca had departed for the Galapagos Islands to help with patrolling the area against illegal fishing activities.

It is also worth noting that Ecuador and other nations are obtaining new naval platforms, particularly offshore patrol vessels (OPV), to monitor their maritime territory. For example, IHS Jane’s has reported that on 31 July the Argentine government passed a decree “authorizing state credit to finance some of the major defense acquisition programs included in the 2017 budget.” The acquisitions program includes OPVs, Beechcraft T-6C+ Texan II aircraft, among others. It is unclear if the OPV acquisition was motivated by the 2016 incident, but it stands to reason that this incident provided even more evidence that the Argentine Navy requires new platforms for maritime control.

Discussion

Discussing unauthorized Chinese fishing is complicated as alarmism must be avoided. The incidents between Chinese fishing fleets and security forces in Latin American waters have been few – at least from what has been reported. And apart from the 2016 incident in Argentina, none other has been violent.

Nevertheless, there are a plethora of reports regarding Chinese fleets operating without authorization in Latin America and other parts of the world, particularly in Africa: just this past June, Senegal detained seven Chinese trawlers for illegally fishing in its waters. Moreover, it is correct to assume that these fleets will continue to attempt to operate in Latin American waters in the near future, particularly as domestic demand for maritime resources prompts them to be bolder when it comes to the areas that they travel to. It is also important to mention that not all the fish China captures are for internal consumption, as the Wilson Center’s report “Fishing for Answers” explains: “most of China’s high-value species and about half the overall catch are exported to the EU, the United States, and Japan, and the other half is brought back to China and sold domestically.” (While this article is focusing on illegal fishing by Chinese fleets, we must keep in mind how growing global demand for fish is affecting the fishing industry in general).

Thus one concern looking toward the future is whether there will be more violent confrontations between illegal fishing fleets and security forces given a growing demand for maritime resources. So far, the vessels have either attempted to flee or surrendered to authorities, but the Argentine incident raises the question: would some of these crews one day decide to fight back in order to avoid capture and protect their profit?

Finally, the possible ramifications of future incidents like this must be considered. China is a global economic force, and most nations, including developing nations such as those in Latin America, would not want to take Beijing head on. This is arguably the reason why the incidents mentioned in this article have not somehow evolved into some type of trade or diplomatic crisis. In fact, just this past March, the Argentine government signed a  memorandum of understanding with the Chinese company Ali Baba to sell products like wine, meat, and (somewhat ironically) fish. Similarly, in spite of the December 2016 reports about the Chinese fishing fleet in its territorial waters, Chinese-Peruvian trade remains strong as the latest data by the Peruvian government states that trade grew by 30 percent in the first half of 2017 compared to the same period last year.

How Ecuador reacts to this latest incident will be interesting as Quito-Beijing ties are not only strong due to commerce but also on other areas. For example, Ecuador has acquired “709 4×4 and 6×6 multipurpose trucks, 6×4 fuel and water trucks, and different types of buses in a deal reportedly worth USD81 million,”according to IHS Jane’s. On 4 September, Ecuador’s daily El Telegrafo reported that China’s Ministry of Agriculture has proposed the establishment of an “intergovernmental communication mechanism” between Quito and Beijing to “exchange information and jointly protect” maritime resources and crack down on illegal fishing activities. At the time of this writing there have been no reports about how the Ecuadorian government will respond to this proposal but, if previous incidents in other countries are a precedent, the Galapagos Islands incident will probably be minimized in order to protect Quito-Beijing partnerships in other areas.

Final Thoughts

Demographic growth and scarcer maritime resources are a catalyst for more frequent clashes at sea. In recent years there have been various reports about Chinese fishing fleets operating in international waters and also crossing into a country’s maritime territory to carry out unauthorized fishing activities. The most recent August incident off the Galapagos Islands is another example of this problem, one which has gained prominence in Latin America since the March 2016 incident in Argentina.

New platforms like OPVs will help regional navies to more efficiently patrol their maritime territory and intercept unauthorized fishing fleets in the near future; however this is just half of the equation. The second part is how Latin American governments will adapt their relations (particularly trade) with China since most violating fishing fleets appear to be Chinese. Combating illegal fishing is a complex issue, as it involves modern (and numerous) platforms for surveillance and interception, as well as a skilled judicial system to prosecute the culprits. Adding the future of a country’s relations with China will not make the problem any easier. 

 Alejandro Sanchez Nieto is a researcher who focuses on geopolitical, military and cyber security issues in the Western Hemisphere. Follow him on Twitter: @W_Alex_Sanchez.

The views presented in this essay are the sole responsibility of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of any institutions with which the author is associated.

NSF: Colombian Crackdown on Illegal Fishing

"Colombian Crackdown on Illegal Fishing"
W. Alejandro Sanchez & Brittney Figueroa
National Security Forum
6 February, 2017
Originally published: https://medium.com/natural-security-forum/colombian-crackdown-on-illegal-fishing-f600801b66d2#.ex1nusw38

The Colombian government has recently begun expanding their capabilities to combat IUU fishing, revealing a shift in security priorities.

Guest written by W. Alejandro Sanchez

This past October, the government of Colombia took a major step forward in combating illegal fishing when 26 of its citizens were sent to prison for doing just that. According to Colombian media, this is the first time that Colombians have been prosecuted and sentenced for illegal fishing, a major problem for the South American state that is exacerbated by the presence of unauthorized vessels from foreign nations.

Ongoing incidents and data point to the scale of illegal maritime exploitation, and exemplify how illegal fishing will likely not stop anytime soon. For example, a December 2015 Colombian Navy communiqué revealed that, in that year alone, more than 12,400 kilograms of illegally-obtained sea life were seized.

As for 2016, in February, a Colombian corvette, Nariño (CM-55), detained the Costa Rican Anagon in the Pacific Ocean. The vessel had a crew of four Costa Ricans and was transporting one and a half tons of various fish, including shark and tuna. Months later, in June, a vessel carrying a crew of five Hondurans flying the flag of the Cayman Islands was detained off Serranilla Bank in Colombia’s Caribbean waters. The vessel had illegally fished 1.3 tons of northern red snapper. The Colombian media has also discussed the international aspect of this problem. For example, a report by the renowned daily El Tiempo discussed how unauthorized foreign vessels come from neighboring Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica and Ecuador. Clearly, the transnational security aspect of this issue is on the minds of many Colombians.

It’s not just foreign nationals implicated in this crime. Colombians are also guilty of illegal fishing, as the aforementioned October arrest of more than two dozen Colombians who were found in possession of two tons of 22 different types of sea life, so clearly illustrates. The penal sentences for unauthorized fishing will set an important precedent for future arrests.

As far back as 2012, Colombian President Juan Manuel Santos made his intentions clear to crack down on this crime. In January 2012, he critiquedforeign fishing vessels, explaining that “they are violating our territory, the environment as well as our maritime richness.” He also called for the Colombian Navy to “monitor [this crime] with special care.” Certainly, the cornerstone of his presidency has been the peace negotiations with the FARC insurgents, but the Colombian head of state has also supported greater attention against illegal fishing, particularly given its domestic and international security consequences. It comes as no surprise that there have been strong efforts in recent years towards protecting the country’s seas.

In order to crack down on the problem of illegal fishing, the Colombian Navy has obtained new platforms to patrol its maritime territory. Combating illegal fishing, along with other non-traditional security threats, means that there is a growing need for offshore patrol vessels, many of which have been constructed by Colombia’s state-run COTECMAR. The new platforms have helped carry out a string of successful operations to crack down on illegal fishing boats, both domestic and foreign. Additionally, the Colombian Congress is debating (and will hopefully soon ratify) a penal code against illegal fishing. Finally, inter-governmental cooperation is improving. This past May, officials from Colombia and Ecuador met to discuss how to more efficiently combat illegal fishing along their common border. These initiatives give hope that Bogota is approaching this crime with multi-layered solutions.

W. Alejandro Sanchez is an international security analyst. Follow him on Twitter @W_Alex_Sanchez

The author would like to thank Brittney Figueroa for her help. The views presented in this essay are the sole responsibility of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of any institutions with which the author is associated.

The views and opinions expressed on the Natural Security Blog are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the position of the Stimson Center.

CIMSEC: Sea Shepherd in Latin America

"Sea Shepherd in Latin America"
W. Alejandro Sanchez
The Southern Tide
Center for International Maritime Security
September 21, 2016
Originally published: http://cimsec.org/sea-shepherd-latin-america/28147

Written by Wilder Alejandro Sanchez, The Southern Tide addresses maritime security issues throughout Latin America and the Caribbean. It discusses the challenges regional navies face including limited defense budgets, inter-state tensions, and transnational crimes. It also examines how these challenges influence current and future defense strategies, platform acquisitions, and relations with global powers.

“The security environment in Latin America and the Caribbean is characterized by complex, diverse, and non-traditional challenges to U.S. interests.” Admiral Kurt W. Tidd, Commander, U.S. Southern Command, before the 114th Congress Senate Armed Services Committee, 10 March 2016.

By Alejandro Sanchez

Nowadays, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and private military companies (PMCs) are deploying their own vessels to the open seas in order to have a greater role in protecting maritime traffic or the maritime ecosystem. When it comes to Latin America, one NGO in particular has made a name for itself in the past decade and a half: the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society.

Activities

Sea Shepherd is arguably most well-known for Whale Wars, a television show broadcasted by Animal Planet documenting activities by the organization’s vessels as they attempt to stop Japanese whale hunters in the Antarctic. However, Sea Shepherd also carries out operations around the world. When it comes to Latin America, the organization has been active throughout region, especially in Central America, Ecuador, and Mexico.

Regarding Central America, Sea Shepherd was first active in Guatemala in 2002, when the Ocean Warrior, commanded by the famous Paul Watson (founder and president of Sea Shepherd), attempted to crack down on illegal fishing in the Caribbean. The operation ended with an incident between Watson and the Costa Rican government that has had repercussions to this day (we will discuss it in the following section).

Sea Shepherd returned to Guatemala the following decade: in 2014 the organization’s 35 meter interceptor, the Brigitte Bardot, helped crack down on marlin poachers. A 2014 article in the Tico Timesexplains how “for the next several weeks, the Brigitte Bardot will be based out of Port San José, on Guatemala’s southern Pacific coast in the department of Escuíntla, with eight Sea Shepherd crew on board, along with Guatemalan Naval and police officers.” The presence of local security officials aboard the vessel is an important fact as they are ultimately in charge of arresting suspects.

As for Ecuador, Sea Shepherd has been in the South Pacific for over a decade to protect the Galapagos Islands. As early as 2002, the organization’s Sirenean was active in the Galapagos against illegal fishing. Years later in 2007, Sea Shepherd’s activists worked with Ecuadorean law enforcement to crack down on sea cucumber poachers. The bilateral relationship took a leap forward this past March, when Sea Shepherd signed an agreement with Quito to support the protection of the islands for the next four years. AMarch 11 press release explains,

“Sea Shepherd has previously used an innovative approach to conservation needs that have been used in cooperation with public institutions such as the Galapagos National Park, the National Police and the legal system…Sea Shepherd’s previous conservation work in the Galapagos includes the installation of an AIS system, donation of a patrol vessel, police communications equipment, a legal reform and capacity building program and a marine conservation book.”

There already appear to be quick results, as in May Sea Shepherd and Ecuadorean authorities presented a new environmental penal code.

Concerning Mexico, the organization’s sailing ketch Martin Sheenparticipated in 2015’s Operation Milagro, which focused on “protecting the endangered vaquita in Mexico’s Sea of Cortez.” The operation occurred as part of an agreement between Sea Shepherd and Mexico’s National Commission of Natural Protected Areas (CONANP) and the Federal Attorney for Environmental Protection (PROFEPA) to protect the vaquita (a porpoise) and other marine fauna. The apparent success of Operation Milagro prompted a new initiative this year: Operation Angel de la Guarda, via which Sea Shepherd’s “anti-poaching vessel, the M/V Farley Mowat, is partnering with the Mexican Navy and environmental protection agency PROFEPA to patrol against totoaba poaching.”

Finally, it is worth mentioning that Sea Shepherd also participates in regional conferences that address environmental crimes. For example, in 2013, the organization presented a video on shark fishing at the Fifth Latin-American Congress of Environmental Prosecutors, held in Bogotá, Colombia.

The Costa Rica Incident

In spite of successful partnerships and initiatives with various Western Hemisphere nations, it is important to stress that Sea Shepherd’s relationship with the region has not been trouble-free. Namely the organization’s founder Paul Watson is wanted by the Costa Rican government.

A brief summary of the 2002 incident should suffice: the Ocean Warrior, commanded by Paul Watson, patrolled Guatemalan waters looking for vessels engaged in shark fishing. It was in this mission that Watson located a Costa Rican vessel, the Varadero I. There are conflicting reports on what happened afterwards: theOcean Warrior detained the Varadero I, and either the fishing vessel managed to flee, or Guatemalan authorities requested Watson to release the fishing boat. Watson then docked the Ocean Warrior in Costa Rica, where local authorities arrested him and charged him with attempted murder and shipwrecking. The charges were ultimately dropped, but because of Watson’s failure to appear in court for subsequent hearings, “Costa Rica court declared Watson as a rebel and issued a warrant of arrest for violation of ship traffic.”

To this day there is a request for Watson’s extradition by the Costa Rican government. He was detained in Germany in 2012 asINTERPOL posted a Red Notice, or international wanted person alert, for him (he is also wanted by Japan) but he was later freed. Watson filed a petition of his own against San Jose in the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights in 2015.

The Future of NGOs and Maritime Security

Several NGOs, both international and domestic, operate in Latin America to address maritime affairs; however, Sea Shepherd appears to be the only entity that has vessels helping Latin American governments. The one arguable exception would be Greenpeace as its vessel, Arctic Sunrise, docked in Argentina in thelate 1990s and early 2000s to protest river pollution and promote wind energy. Nevertheless, the difference is that Greenpeace’s vessel was utilized as a publicity stunt to bring attention to an issue, while Sea Shepherd has deployed its vessels to Latin American waters to actively combat illegal fishing.

Thus, Sea Shepherd serves as an important precedent for future partnerships, as states may request maritime conservation support not just from other governments and multinational organizations, but also from NGOs. A key issue for future agreements will probably be that local security officers must be aboard any NGO vessels to carry out arrests. For example, Sea Shepherd’s Brigitte Bardot embarked Guatemalan law enforcement in 2014, probably to avoid another Costa Rica-type incident. A similar situation occurred in Ecuador in 2003 when the Sirenean, with Galapagos National Park Rangers and Ecuadorian Naval crew aboard, stopped a poaching ship.

Another issue that may hinder future agreements is whether governmental objectives are in harmony with those of Sea Shepherd or other organizations. Without a doubt, there is always the possibility of an incident derailing a partnership.For example, while the Quito-Sea Shepherd alliance appears strong, there was at least one incident between them in 2007 when Sea Shepherd representative Sean O’Hearn was deported from Ecuador.

Final Thoughts

In the 21st century, maritime enforcement affairs are no longer confined to governments and their maritime forces, be they navies or coast guards. Economic and technological development as well as vibrant civic societies have helped create global NGOs that do more than organize mailing campaigns or protests ashore, they are also acquiring platforms to take their activities to the open seas.

In spite of the Costa Rican incident and the legal limitations this places on Sea Shepherd founder Paul Watson, his organization has managed to make a positive name for itself among governments in Ecuador, Guatemala, and Mexico. Case in point, a 2015 press release by the Mexican Ministry of Natural Resources announcing the partnership with Sea Shepherd to protect the vaquita explains that “[Sea Shepherd] has great experience regarding the protection of maritime resources, it has recently collaborated with Ecuador to stop illegal fishing.” In other words, Sea Shepherd’s success in Ecuador is helping it gain new allies in the region, the problem with Costa Rica notwithstanding.

Partnerships akin to what Sea Shepherd has accomplished in these nations may become a model for other Latin American and extra-hemispheric governments to imitate in the near future, if they can find NGOs with appropriate naval platforms, acceptable modus operandi, and similar objectives.

*The author contacted Sea Shepherd Conservation Society for input to this analysis but has not yet received a response at time of publication.

**The idea for this analysis came from a discussion entitled “A New Role for Non-State Actors in the Growing Competition for Strategic Marine Resources,” co-hosted by the Center for a New American Security (CNAS) and the Center for International Maritime Security (CIMSEC).

Alejandro Sanchez Nieto is a researcher who focuses on geopolitical, military, and cyber security issues in the Western Hemisphere. Follow him on Twitter: @W_Alex_Sanchez. The views presented in this essay are his sole responsibility and do not necessarily reflect those of any institutions with which he is associated.